This study explores the semantic, pragmatic, and cognitive distinctions between indicative and subjunctive conditionals in English. Indicative conditionals typically convey factual or epistemically possible scenarios, while subjunctive conditionals are used to express hypotheticals or counterfactuals. The paper examines how these two types of conditionals differ in truth-conditions and inferential behavior, highlighting debates over whether they reflect fundamentally distinct meanings or subtler pragmatic differences. Key theoretical perspectives are discussed, including Lewis’s variably strict semantics for subjunctives, material implication with pragmatic enrichment for indicatives, and alternative views such as the conditional assertion and No Truth-Value approaches. Additionally, the study considers the cognitive underpinnings of conditional reasoning, suggesting that the capacity to assert conditionally may precede the formation of fully defined conditional propositions. Despite semantic differences, both indicative and subjunctive conditionals share important patterns in reasoning, such as the failure of Strengthening the Antecedent, indicating overlapping functional roles in human thought. This analysis contributes to a deeper understanding of how conditional structures encode meaning, guide inference, and reflect cognitive strategies in hypothetical reasoning.

This article analyzes the growing importance of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies in the fields of science and education. In science, AI plays a crucial role in processing complex data, accelerating new discoveries, and optimizing research processes. In education, it enhances the quality of teaching through personalized learning, the creation of educational materials, and the automation of assessment systems. The article thoroughly discusses AI's current capabilities, achievements, and future prospects in these fields. Its integration into scientific and educational systems opens new horizons for innovative development.

This article analyzes the priorities of the foreign policy of the Republic of Korea, the factors of their formation, and their place in the system of modern international relations. In particular, the strategic alliance with the United States, relations with North Korea, diplomatic activity in the Asia-Pacific region, economic diplomacy, and the importance of security issues in foreign policy are highlighted. Special attention is also paid to the participation of the Republic of Korea in global political processes, its activities within international organizations, and multilateral cooperation mechanisms.

This article analyzes the formation and development of knowledge from the perspective of semiotic systematization. Knowledge is interpreted as a process through which information about the external world is transformed into a symbolic-cognitive construct by means of sensation, perception, experience, logical generalization, and social agreement. The article examines the emergence of signs, symbols, sounds, words, texts, and concepts, as well as the mechanisms by which they are transformed into knowledge, on the basis of naturalistic, conventional, anthropological, and cognitive approaches. It also distinguishes genetic, artificial, and social forms of knowledge and explains their role in human thought, experience, cultural relations, and the system of formal education.

This article analyzes the use of artificial intelligence technologies in modern political processes. The author highlights the positive and negative aspects of using AI technologies to analyze large volumes of political data, support decision-making in domestic and foreign policy, develop effective action plans, determine the prospects of political processes, and manipulate target audiences. The article presents the opportunities and prospects, as well as the challenges and threats arising from the implementation of politically oriented algorithms in political processes and international relations.

This article provides a specific structural analysis of units inherent in the lexical system of children's folklore in the Uzbek and English languages. The semantic range of units was studied based on examples of oral folk art characteristic of both nations.

This article analyzes the role of representative power in ensuring social solidarity and cohesion from philosophical and social perspectives. The study examines key functions of representative institutions, including communication, integration, legitimacy, justice, participation, and strategic governance. Drawing on the theories of Jürgen Habermas, Aristotle, and John Rawls, the paper highlights the importance of dialogue, equality, and fairness in democratic decision-making processes. Using the example of Uzbekistan, the article explores the significance of parliament in maintaining social stability and interethnic harmony. The findings demonstrate that representative power functions not only as a political institution but also as a complex socio-philosophical mechanism for sustainable societal development.

Twentieth-century philosophical anthropology emerged as a response to the crisis in human concepts during the rapid development of the natural and cultural sciences. This article examines the key ideas of one of the founders of this field, Helmut Plessner, centered on the concept of eccentric positionality as a fundamental characteristic of human existence.

A comprehensive theoretical and analytical review of the interrelation between the optical and magnetic properties of nanostructures doped with rare-earth (RE) ions is presented. Quantum size effects, the influence of spin–orbit coupling, and the role of surface defects are examined. It is shown that controlling particle size and dopant concentration enables the targeted tuning of the magneto-optical response of the material [1–5].

This article analyzes the transformation of Uzbekistan–Türkiye relations during the presidency of Shavkat Mirziyoyev. It examines the development of political, economic, cultural, and strategic cooperation between the two countries, as well as Uzbekistan’s growing role within the Organization of Turkic States. Special attention is given to Mirziyoyev’s initiatives on regional integration, transport and logistics corridors, green economy, and food security. The study highlights how strengthened bilateral ties and multilateral engagement contribute to regional stability and shared prosperity in the Turkic world.

Corporate deadlock constitutes a serious challenge in business governance, particularly in companies with a limited number of shareholders and in partnerships where equal ownership structures create impasses in decision-making. This article examines internationally recognized methods for resolving corporate deadlock, drawing on academic research and the legal frameworks of various jurisdictions. The study analyzes both contractual mechanisms (including mutual control clauses, buy-sell agreements, and casting vote arrangements) and alternative dispute resolution methods (mediation, arbitration, and hybrid approaches). The research demonstrates that the advance inclusion of deadlock resolution provisions in shareholders’ agreements significantly reduces litigation costs and ensures business continuity. The findings indicate that mutual control mechanisms, when properly designed with due consideration of information asymmetry and financial disparities, offer effective solutions, while mediation and arbitration provide flexible alternatives capable of preserving ongoing business relationships. This article contributes to the corporate governance literature by synthesizing empirical evidence on the effectiveness of deadlock resolution mechanisms and by offering practical recommendations for business owners, legal practitioners, and policymakers.

This article analyzes the role and methodological approaches of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies in the formation of independent English language learning competence in higher education institutions. Independent learning competence refers to a student's ability to self-develop, independently acquire language skills, and effectively use digital tools. The article proposes a methodology for individualizing the learning process, increasing motivation, and developing metacognitive strategies using AI tools — chat bots, language applications, and automatic analysis platforms. The effectiveness of the methodology is also assessed based on experimental observations and recommendations are made for its application in the local educational context.