This article discusses in detail the emergence of the terms Afghan and Pashtun, the origin of the Pashtuns, their place in Afghanistan and Pakistan, and their influence on the politics of these countries. The article also describes in detail the idea of the Pashtuns to establish a state of "Pashtunistan" and attempts to implement it. The position of Afghanistan and Pakistan regarding the Pashtun movement and the policies pursued by the parties are widely covered.

This article analyzes the geopolitical significance of Arctic shipping routes in the context of global climate change, energy security and international cooperation. The main focus is on the role of Russia and China in the development of the Northern Sea Route (NSR), as well as the prospects for their strategic partnership in the Arctic region. The paper examines the international legal aspects of navigation in the Arctic, economic benefits and risks, as well as the geostrategic interests of key global actors. An analysis of existing scientific literature, government strategies and interstate agreements is provided. The results of the study demonstrate the growing importance of the Arctic in world politics and emphasize the need for joint efforts by Russia and China for the sustainable development of the region.

The development of Russian-Chinese intercultural relations is an important component of neighborly relations, friendship and cooperation oriented toward the 21st century and a primary aspect of the comprehensive partnership and strategic interaction between the two countries. At present, Russian-Chinese intercultural exchanges have achieved initial success and show broad prospects for development. In order to further expand exchanges and cooperation between China and Russia in the humanitarian and social spheres and promote the stable and healthy development of Russian-Chinese relations, we must make greater efforts.

This article presents an analysis of the criminological characteristics of juvenile offenders, their unique personal characteristics, the work being carried out in our country to prevent crimes and offenses among juveniles, statistical data on crimes committed by juveniles, and the importance of spiritual activities in preventing their crimes.

This study examines the effectiveness of the 2R2D (Reading, Reflection, Discussion, and Discussion) method in teaching Persian in religious schools in Uzbekistan. Since Persian is an important language in Islamic theology, improving students’ Persian language skills is essential for understanding religious texts. The 2R2D method combines active reading, critical thinking, collaborative discussion, and structured discussions to develop language comprehension, critical thinking, and theological discussion skills. The study uses mixed methods, including classroom observations, tests, and student feedback to assess the impact of the method. Preliminary results indicate that the 2R2D method improves Persian language acquisition while increasing students’ engagement in religious content.

This article examines the portrayal of childhood in 19th-century English literature from social, psychological, and cultural perspectives. Excluding the works of Charlotte Bronte and Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist, it analyzes the depictions of childhood in the works of Thomas Hardy, Elizabeth Gaskell, George Eliot, and William Wordsworth. The study explores the social issues of the Victorian era, attitudes toward childhood, and the symbolic significance of child characters. Through these portrayals, authors convey social critique and psychological insights.

The article examines the study of the civilizational development of Japan. The purpose of the study is a thorough analysis of the work of the orientalist, academician Nikolai Iosifovich Konrad, who devoted more than 40 years of his life to the study of Japanese civilization, especially the history of its culture. N. Konrad is considered one of the first who was able to apply a comparative approach to Japanese culture with the cultures of the East and West, which subsequently allowed a new assessment of the contribution of Japanese civilization to world culture. The main conclusion of this study is that the legacy of N. Konrad is fundamental in the study of Japanese history, culture, literature and language, and his translations and commentaries on Japanese literature have become an important tool for understanding the Japanese people and their way of life.

The article examines Japan's modern economic diplomacy. The aim of the study is to analyze the economic potential of the land of the rising sun, as well as its participation in international organizations. The main conclusion is that Japan's economic diplomacy is a powerful tool that combines trade, investment and development assistance to strengthen global and regional influence. The prospects for economic diplomacy are also associated with deepening digitalization, expanding green projects and strengthening regional structures, which will allow Japan to maintain competitiveness in a multipolar world.

This article discusses the influence of philosophical ideas at the stage of the formation of Islamic culture and enlightenment. In particular, the factors and characteristics that influenced the Islamic enlightenment served the scope of the work and the quality of the task. The scientific observations that influenced the gradual development of Islamic culture and values were clarified using the examples of Jewish and Christian sources.

This article explores the role of the Telegram platform in modern educational practices, its alignment with pedagogical approaches, and practical applications. It highlights the advantages of Telegram in delivering educational content, facilitating communication, assessing student knowledge, and organizing feedback systems. Real-life examples, scholarly citations, SWOT analysis, and recommendations are presented to demonstrate the platform’s potential in education.

This article analyzes the concept of innovation activity and its role within joint-stock companies, highlighting both theoretical foundations and practical mechanisms of effective innovation governance. It substantiates how innovation, under corporate governance frameworks, influences competitiveness, capital efficiency, stakeholder balance, and economic resilience. The study explores Uzbekistan’s reform agenda, the role of state ownership, foreign investment inflows, and the adoption of modern governance practices to enhance innovation capacity. It also emphasizes the strategic function of corporate governance in directing internal resources toward innovation and achieving sustainable outcomes.

This article examines methods for developing students' critical thinking skills based on teaching reading literacy in primary grades in Uzbekistan. The study analyzes modern requirements of primary education, pedagogical and psychological aspects of forming critical thinking in reading literacy lessons, as well as innovative methods and technologies used in this process.